wonderful cosplay

Henry Merritt "Hank" Paulson Jr. (born March 28, 1946) is the United States Treasury Secretary and member of the International Monetary Fund Board of Governors. He previously served as the Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Goldman Sachs, one of the world's largest and most successful investment banks.
He was nominated by U.S. President George W. Bush to succeed John Snow as the Treasury Secretary on May 30, 2006. Secretary Paulson was officially sworn in at a ceremony held at the Treasury Department on the morning of July 10, 2006.

Career highlights
Paulson has been described as an avid nature lover.

Civic activities
On May 30, 2006, Treasury Secretary John W. Snow resigned. President Bush immediately nominated Paulson to head the Treasury department. On June 28, 2006, the United States Senate confirmed Paulson to serve in this position.
Paulson's three immediate predecessors as CEO of Goldman Sachs — Jon Corzine, Stephen Friedman, and Robert Rubin — each left the company to serve in government: Corzine as a U.S. Senator (later Governor of New Jersey), Friedman as chairman of the National Economic Council (later chairman of the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board), and Rubin as both chairman of the NEC and later Treasury Secretary under President Bill Clinton.

Treasury Secretary nomination
Paulson has quickly distinguished himself from his two Bush administration predecessors by listing the wide gap between the richest and poorest Americans as an issue on his list of the country's four major long-term economic issues to be addressed, highlighting the issue in one of his first public appearances as Secretary of Treasury.

Footnotes

Fortune Magazine: Hank Paulson's secret life
AP story: Paulson picks bird watching over golf
Derivatives Financier Henry Paulson Nominated To Head U.S. Treasury: Will His Derivatives Bubble Be An Economic Tsunami?

Wanderlust (Middle High German: wandern, to wander, and Lust, desire) is a German loanword. It is commonly defined as a strong desire to travel, or by having an itch to get out and see the world.[1] Some consider it to be a simple linguistic compound of wander and lust.

Wanderlust in fiction
Wanderlust is used in the series of books Dragonlance to describe a genetic process that a race called "Kender" (Which are akin to wood elves or hobbits) go through, during which they are overpowered by an insatiable urge to leave behind any permanent location for residence and simply explore.

Legend
50 p.d. or if not shown 50 p.r. (cinematographic works) 25 p.r. (photographic works) Signatories may grant longer terms.
Art. 7(2) Art. 7(4) Art. 7(6)
50 p.d. or if not published 50 p.r.(works of legal entities, cinematographic works, films or photographic works)
Art. 21, second and third paragraphs, ibid.
60 p.d. (posthumous works, photographs, cinematograph films, and sound recordings)
s. 24, s. 25, s. 26, s. 27, ibid.
50 p.d. (audiovisual works) 25 after completion (works of applied art and photographic works) Art. 106, ibid. Arts. 148 & 155, ibid.
50 p.d. (cinematograph films, photographs, computer programs, sound recordings, broadcasts, programme-carrying signals, published editions, state official texts)
s. 3(2)(b), (c), (d), (e), (f), s. 5, ibid.
50 p.d. (photographic works, audiovisual works, sound recordings, and performances)
Art. 34, ibid.
95 p.d. or 120 p.r. whichever is shorter (anonymous works, pseudonymous works, or works made for hire, published since 1978) 95 p.d. for works published 1964-1977; 28 (if copyright not renewed) or 95 p.d. for works published 1923-1963 (Copyrights prior to 1923 have expired.)
17 USC 302(c) 17 USC 304
50 pma (non-photograph artistic works) 50 p.d. (photographs) 50 p.r. (Sound recordings) 50 p.d. (cinematograph films, broadcasts)
s. 6(3)(a), ibid. s. 6(3)(b), ibid. s. 16(2), ibid. s. 17(2), s. 18(2), ibid.

Table
Terms of protection were taken from a variety of sources, including WIPO, UNESCO and the University of Pennsylvania (see External links). Where no more specific information is available for a country, an indication of its probable minimum copyright term can be gained from its status as:

a signatory of the Berne Convention ("Berne"); minimum term of 50 pma, except for photographs.
a member of the WTO ("TRIPS"); minimum term of 50 pma.
a candidate for membership of the European Union ("EU"); term must be 70 pma before accession. Notes

Official text copyright
Rule of the shorter term

Troubleshooting is a form of problem solving. It is the systematic search for the source of a problem so that it can be solved. Troubleshooting is often a process of elimination - eliminating potential causes of a problem. Troubleshooting is used in many fields such as system administration and electronics.
In general troubleshooting is the identification or diagnosis of "trouble" in a system. The problem or is initially described as symptoms of malfunction and troubleshooting is the process of determining the causes of these symptoms.
A system can be described in terms of its expected or intended behavior (usually, for artificial systems, its purpose). Events or inputs to the system are expected to generate specific results or outputs. (For example selecting the "print" option from various computer applications is intended to result in hardcopy emerging from some specific device). Any unexpected, particularly undesirable behavior is a symptom and troubleshooting is the process if isolating its specific cause or causes. Frequently the symptom is a failure to observe any results. (Nothing was printed, for example).
Most discussion of troubleshooting, and especially training in formal troubleshooting procedures, is extremely domain specific. The bulk of the material is relevant to a particular field of endeavor (such as automotive repair, computer hardware services, or software systems support). However, troubleshooting has common elements regardless of the specifics.
Any system can be described in terms of its components or subsystems. Each subsystem can be described in terms of its expected behavior. So the inputs to a system can be described as a cascade of inputs and results among the components of the system. (For example: selecting the "print" option in a computer application may cause the software to call on a separate utility, such as lpr on a UNIX system; that in turn might open, read and parse a number of configuration files which might direct it to perform some form of hostname address resolution via DNS, NIS, or LDAP, and then initiate a TCP/IP connection to a specific network device, and so on).
The domain specific knowlege that dominates the troubleshooting process is largely comprised of the understanding of these systems in terms of the interactions and dependencies among their subsystems and components. In particular the specialist can ennumerate the components and knows a set of procedures for testing many of them in isolation from the system as a whole. (For example the systems administrator may know which configuration files lpr is trying to parse and may read them manually, check their permissions, or may assume the identity of the user who is experiencing the problem and manually run an lpr command from the system's shell prompt; this may isolation the problem to the application's configuration, the user's preference settings, the workstation's configuration or network settings, the network's name services domain, or back to the printer's configuration or hardware).
Well-designed systems have designated "test points" or monitoring instrumentation. (For example most printers have indicator lights which change colors or blink, or LCD panels which display messages for detectable problems: paper jams, empty paper trays, network or other cable disconnection, etc. As another example UNIX and Linux systems support features for system call tracing through commands like truss, strace, and ktrace).
Usually troubleshooting is applied to something that has suddenly stopped working, since its previously working state forms the expectations about its continued behavior. So the initial focus is often on recent changes to the system or to the environment in which it exists. (For example a printer that "was working when it was plugged in over there"). However, there is a well known principle that correlation does not imply causality. (For example the failure of a device shortly after it's been plugged into a different outlet doesn't necessarily mean that the events were related. The failure could have been a matter of coincidence).
It's useful to consider the common experiences we have with light bulbs. Light bulbs "burn out" more or less at random; eventually the repeated heating and cooling of its filament, and fluctuations in the power supplied to it cause the filament to crack or vaporize. The same principle applies to most other electronic devices and similar principles apply to mechanical devices. Some failures are part of the normal wear-and-tear of components in a system.
A basic principle in troubleshooting is to start from the simplest and most probable possible problems first. This is illustrated by the old saying "When you see hoof prints, look for horses, not zebras", or to use another maxim, use the KISS principle. This principle results in the common complaint about help desks or manuals, that they sometimes first ask: "Is it plugged in and does that receptacle have power?", but this should not be taken as an affront, rather it should serve as a reminder or conditioning to always check the simple things first before calling for help.
A troubleshooter could check each component in a system one by one, substituting known good components for each potentially suspect one. However, this process of "serial substitution" can be considered degenerate when components are substituted without regards to a hypothesis concerning how their failure could result in the symptoms being diagnosed.
Efficient methodical troubleshooting starts with a clear understanding of the expected behavior of the system and the symptoms being observed. From there the troubleshooter forms hypotheses on potential causes, and devises (or perhaps references a standardized checklist) of tests to eliminate these prospective causes. Two common strategies used by troubleshooters are to check for frequently encountered or easily tested conditions first (for example, checking to ensure that a printer's light is on and that its cable is firmly seated at both ends), and to "bisect" the system (for example in a network printing system, checking to see if the job reached the server to determine whether a problem exists in the subsystems "towards" the user's end or "towards" the device).
This latter technique can be particular efficient in systems with long chains of serialized dependencies or interactions among its components. It's simply the application of a binary search across the range of dependences.
Simple and intermediate systems are characterized by lists or trees of dependencies among their components or subsystems. More complex systems contain cyclical dependencies or interactions (feedback loops). Such systems are less amenable to "bisection" troubleshooting techniques.
It also helps to start from a known good state, the best example being a computer reboot. A cognitive walkthrough is also a good thing to try. Comprehensive documentation produced by proficient technical writers is very helpful, especially if it provides a theory of operation for the subject device or system.
A common cause of problems is bad design, for example bad human factors design, where a device could be inserted backward or upside down due to the lack of an appropriate forcing function (behavior-shaping constraint), or a lack of error-tolerant design. This is especially bad if accompanied by habituation, where the user just doesn't notice the incorrect usage, for instance if two parts have different functions but share a common case so that it isn't apparent on a casual inspection which part is being used.
Troubleshooting can also take the form of a systematic checklist, troubleshooting procedure, flowchart or table that is made before a problem occurs. Developing troubleshooting procedures in advance allows sufficient thought about the steps to take in troubleshooting and organizing the troubleshooting into the most efficient troubleshooting process. Troubleshooting tables can be computerized to make them more efficient for users.

Reproducing Symptoms
Some of the most difficult troubleshooting issues related to symptoms which are only intermittent. In electronics this often is the result of components which are thermally sensitive (since resistence of a circuit varies with the temperature of the conductors in it). Compressed air can be used to cool specific spots on a circuit board and a heat gun can be used to raise the temperatures; thus troubleshooting of electronics systems frequently entails applying these tools in order to reproduce a problem. Another, extremely common, problem in electronic and electro-mechanical systems
In computer programming race conditions often lead to intermittent symptoms which are extremely difficult to reproduce; various techniques can be used to force the particular function or module to be called more rapidly then it would be in normal operation (analogous to "heating up" a component in a hardware circuit) while other techniques can be used to introduce greater delays in, or force syncronization among, other modules or interacting processes.
Steven Litt [1] defines intermittent issues thus:
In particular he asserts that there is a distinction between frequency of occurence and a "known procedure to consistently reproduce" an issue. For example knowing that an intermitten problem occurs "within" an hour of a particular stimulus or event ... but that sometimes it happens in five minutes and other times it takes almost an hour ... does not constitute a "known procedure" even if the stimulus does increase the frequency of observable exhibitions of the symptom.
Nevertheless, sometimes troubleshooters must resort to statistical methods ... and can only find procedures to increase the symptom's occurence to a point at which serial substitution or some other technique is feasible. In such cases, even when the symptom seems to disappear for significantly longer periods, there is a low confidence that the root cause has been found and that the problem is truly solved.

A doctorate is an academic degree of, in many countries, the highest level, second only to the habilitation in those (primarily Central and Eastern European) countries that grant the latter. The term doctorate comes from the Latin doctor, meaning "teacher." It originated in Medieval Europe as a license to teach at a university. In this sense doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild. The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts", seven years, was the same as the term of apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree.
The usage and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, and it has also been subject to regional variations. For instance, until the early 20th century few faculty members in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring faculty candidates to have completed a "research doctorate" became widespread. Additionally, universities' shifts to "research oriented" education increased the importance of the doctorate. Today such a doctorate is generally a prerequisite for pursuing an academic career, although not everyone who receives a research doctorate becomes a member of a university. Many universities also award "honorary doctorates" to individuals who have been deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or for other contributions to the university or to society.
Although the Ph.D. is almost universally accepted as the standard qualification for an academic career, it is a relatively new invention. The older-style doctorates (now usually called "Higher Doctorates" in the United Kingdom) take much longer to complete, since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are now becoming rare, and are often primarily awarded honoris causa. In France, the higher doctorate is the doctorat d'État. The latter was replaced for academic recruitment purposes by the "habilitation to direct theses". The Habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU and is a research doctorate involving either a new long thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications. The Habilitation demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing and, more recently, the ability to generate funding within the area of research. The "Habilitation" is regarded as a senior post-doctoral qualification, many years after the Ph.D., and is necessary for a Privatdozent position.
A similar system traditionally holds in Russia. Already in the Russian Empire the academic degree doctor of science (doctor nauk) marked the highest academic degree which can be achieved by an examination. This system was generally adopted by the USSR/Russia and many post-Soviet countries.

Types of doctorate
Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of academic research that is in principle publishable in a peer-refereed context (such as a research journal or monograph) and represents at least a modest contribution to human knowledge. The research is usually assessed by submission and defense of a thesis or dissertation, or of a suitable body of published work.
The most common example of this type is the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), which has become particularly widespread over the past century. Other examples include the Doctor of Engineering (EngD) in the United States and United Kingdom and the Doctor rerum naturalium (Dr.rer.nat.) in Germany.
Minimum periods for research doctorates vary considerably: In the UK and USA the minimum time for completing the course work toward a Ph.D. is usually three to four years following the completion of a master's degree, however there is an increasing trend in the UK for students obtaining first class honours degrees to progress straight into a Ph.D. programme. Although completions within this period are possible, most candidates take considerably longer: anywhere from five to ten years (including both course work and completion of the dissertation). During the late 1990s, the UK research councils introduced penalties (in the form of a reduction of future funding) for departments whose students regularly failed to submit their thesis within four years (full time) from initial registration. Students in the physical sciences typically have shorter completion times than students in the arts due to their better access to funding sources. In the USA, the research doctorate normally requires three to four years of coursework plus completion of a dissertation. Coursework is increasingly becoming a required component in research doctorates around the world.
Under European law, holders of research doctorates from any EU country are recognized in others.

Research doctorates
In some countries, especially the United Kingdom, Ireland and some Scandinavian and Commonwealth nations, there is a higher tier of research doctorates, awarded on the basis of a formally submitted portfolio of published research of a very high standard. Examples include the Doctor of Science and Doctor of Letters degrees found in the UK and some Commonwealth countries, and the Danish dr.theol. degree.
The German habilitation postdoctoral qualification is sometimes regarded as belonging to this category, even though, strictly speaking, the habilitation is not an academic degree, but rather a professional license to teach at a German university.
Higher doctorates are often also awarded honoris causa when a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's achievements and contributions to a particular field.

Higher doctorates

Main article: First professional degree Honorary doctorates

Country-specific practice
Doctoral programs are available in most Brazilian universities. The candidate is normally required to have received a Master's degree in a related field prior to getting a Doctor's degree. In a few cases however, some institutions may admit candidates who do not hold a Master's degree, based on their individual academic merit. A second and a third foreign language are also common requirements for those wishing to enroll in a doctoral program in Brazil. The admission process varies by institution. Some require candidates to take several tests prior to admission to the program and others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview only. In both instances however, a faculty member must agree prior to admission to supervise the applicant for the duration of the doctorate.
The requirements for the Doctor's degree usually include satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a doctoral thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge in the field of study to which the thesis topic is related. The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be necessarily external examiners. After completion of the program, which normally lasts around 4 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of Doutor (Doctor) followed by the name of the main area of specialization in which his/her research was conducted, e.g. Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Ciências da Computação (Doctor of Computer Sciences), Doutor em Filosofia (Doctor of Philosophy), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering), Doutor em Medicina (Doctor of Medicine), and so on. The generic title of Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences) is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i.e. Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc.)
All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are tuition-free as mandated by the Brazilian constitution. Several graduate students with good academic standing are additionally supported by institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico) and CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento do Pessoal de Ensino Superior). Personal scholarships are also provided by the various FAP's (Fundações de Amparo à Pesquisa) at the state level, especially FAPESP in the state of São Paulo, FAPERJ in the state of Rio de Janeiro and FAPEMIG in the state of Minas Gerais. Competition for graduate financial aid is very intense though and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies. The normal monthly stipend for doctoral students in Brazil is between 500 and 1000 USD.
A degree of Doutor usually enables an individual to apply for a junior faculty position equivalent to that of Assistant Professor in the United States. Progression to full professorship at the rank known as Professor Titular requires however that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes many years. In the federal university system, individuals who hold a doctorate and are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to the rank of Associate Professor and, then, become eligible to take the competitive exam for full professorship provided that a professorship is available. In the São Paulo state universities however, progression to the rank of Associate Professor and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship is conditioned on an individual's obtaining first the qualification of Livre-docente, which is similar to the Habilitation in the German university system and requires, in addition to a previous doctoral degree, the submission of a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications, a public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and also passing a written exam.

Brazil
Finland requires 45 weeks (1800 hours) of study for older students. This requirement has been removed during the Bologna process leaving the decision to individual students and their professors, but some fields recommend a requirement 70 course credits (1866,67 hours). Receiving the doctorate also requires a written thesis. Thesis can either be a monograph or it can be edited from a collection of 3 to 7 journal articles, including an introduction tying the individual parts.

Finland
In France, the doctorate (doctorat) is equivalent to the US Ph.D. : a research-only degree. It can be awarded in any field of study. The master's degree or the former DÉA is a prerequisite for pursuing doctoral program. The official requirement for completing a doctorate is three years, but most of the doctoral students take more than that time. The doctorate is nicknamed thesis (thèse) by the students (the thésards), as the redaction of a comprehensive thesis that constitutes the bulk of the doctorate's work.
Confusingly the title of doctor (docteur) is used only by the medical and pharmatical practitioners who hold not a doctorate but a doctor's state diploma (diplôme d'État de docteur), wich can be seen as equivalent to a first-degree or professional doctorate elsewhere. As they do not pursue research studies, they are not awarded a doctorate.
Fomerly two levels of doctorate existed : research doctorate (doctorat de troisième cycle) and higher doctorate (doctorat d'État). The latter became the habilitation, which is no longer a degree but an academic qualification.

France
In Germany, all doctorates bear the same level of merit. There are no first-degree doctorates as lawyers; medical doctors do not necessarily hold a doctorate, although it is much easier for medical students to earn the degree (it is completed in about one year within their course) than for those studying other disciplines (where the doctorate usually takes at least three years to complete). Apart from that, Germany uses different titles, which are written in front of the first name for addresses (within texts, the abbreviation "Dr." is common) and accompany the person's name (unlike in German-speaking Switzerland). This is a list of the types of doctorates encountered most often. For each title the subject is indicated in which it is mostly awarded. (There are exceptions from this, depending on the rules and traditions of the degree-awarding university.). Some believe that in Germany the title "Dr." is part of a person's name and that these people have a right to be addressed with the title. This misunderstanding comes forth from the fact that "Dr." is the only academic degree that can be mentioned in one's identity card. But this does not make it part of the name. In Southern Germany and Austria it is more common to address somebody with the title than in the North. It can also depend on the occasion and of course of the individual person whether to use the title or not. The proper expression is "Herr Doktor" (male) or "Frau Doktor" (female). Doktors may not address other Doktors with the title, because that would give the impression that one were preferring, or even insisting on, being called Doktor oneself, which could be seen as slightly pathetic. When officially writing to a person with several titles, it would be proper to begin with the "highest" title and eventually name several Dr.-titles, e.g. Prof. Dr. Dr. Schmidt. The actual addressing begins with Sehr geehrter Herr Professor / Sehr geehrte Frau Professor. There are different opinions on whether dropping the Herr or Frau in such occasions is appropriate.
Upon the completion of a second dissertation or Habilitationsschrift a senior doctorate (dr. habil.) is awarded. This senior doctorate is known as the Habilitation. It is not a degree, but an additional qualification. This or an equivalent professional experience is - traditionally - the necessary prerequisite for a position of Privatdozent and Professor. Now, with the BA/MA-model and the Juniorprofessoren to be introduced, this has already changed partially.

Dr. h.c. (Doctor honoris causa - honorary doctor), but: Dr.-Ing. E.h. (German: ehrenhalber)
Dr.-Ing. (Doktor Ingenieur - engineering, sometimes Computer Science)
Dr. iur. (Doctor iuris - law), also: Dr. jur. although this is not the correct spelling
Dr. iur. utr. (Doctor iuris utriusque - both Laws, secular and Canon Law, "Doktor beider Rechte" (weltliches und kanonisches Recht))
Dr. med. (Doctor medicinae - medicine), also Dr. med. dent. for dentists and Dr. med. vet. for veterinarians
Dr. oec. pub. (Doctor oconomiae publicae - business administration ("Betriebswirtschaftslehre") or macro- and micro-economics ("Volkswirtschaftslehre"))
Dr. theol. (Doctor theologiae - theology)
Dr. paed. (Doctor paed. - education ("Doktor der Pädagogik"))
Dr. phil. (Doctor philosophiae - most of the humanities)
Dr. rer. medic. (Doctor rerum medicarum - "Doktor der Medizinwissenschaften")
Dr. rer. nat. (Doctor rerum naturalium - literally "Doctor of natural things" - all natural sciences, mathematics and computer science)
Dr. rer. soc. (Doctor rerum socialium. - social sciences ("Doktor der Sozialwissenschaften"))
Dr. rer. pol. (Doctor rerum politicarum - economics, business administration, sociology and related subjects) Germany
The traditional academic system of The Netherlands provides four basic academic diplomas and degrees: propaedeuse, candidate, doctorandus (drs.) and doctor (dr.). After successful completion of the first year of University, the student is awarded the propaedeutic diploma (not a degree). The candidate degree, which was all but abolished by 1989, used to be attained after three years of academic study, after which the student was allowed to begin work on his doctorandus' thesis. The successful completion of this thesis allows one to use the doctorandus title, attainment of which means one's initial studies are finished. Those who choose to, and are hired as promovendus (research assistant), perform extensive research and write a doctoral dissertation (usually over the course of four years). Upon completion, a doctor's degree is awarded. This is the highest academic degree one can attain. In addition to these 'general' degrees, a number of specific titles for certain subjects are available, each of which is equivalent to the doctorandus degree: for law: meester ('master') (mr.), and for engineering: ingenieur ('engineer')(ir.).
In the last few years, the Dutch have incorporated the Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees into their own. The old candidate's degree has been revived as bachelor's degree, the doctorandus' by the master's degree. This development has led the Eindhoven University of Technology to award a Professional Doctorate in Engineering (PDEng), which replaced a post-master degree. Professional Doctorates are not commonly awarded by Dutch Universities.

The Netherlands
Polish system is similar to the one adopted in Germany, with Ph.D. as a first level doctorate and habilitation (habilitacja) as second. The award of the title of doktor (Ph.D.) is usually preceded by 4-5 years of doctoral study (a post-graduate study offered at most universities, with or without an obligation to teach some classes), but can also be obtained without a formal participation in the doctoral studies. In order to become a doktor habilitowany (i.e. being awarded second level doctorate) a candidate has to publish a dissertation, preceded with several years of deep field studies and have recognized research record. Only candidates with habilitation are eligible to become professors.
To become a doctor one needs to write a dissertation (varying in length), which then must be accepted by a panel of professors during a so-called defence of the dissertation (obrona pracy doktorskiej). There are several other requirements, like passing an exam in a foreign language and philosophy or economics (similar to the Russian system).
A prospective doctor must have also published some works (articles, books) beforehand, otherwise s/he would not be allowed to start the doctoral proceedings (przewód doktorski).
The title of a doctor is abbreviated as dr (without a full stop) before the surname of a person, e.g. dr Kowalski.
Doktor is also a common form of addressing a physician, but that does not indicate that the person actually holds a doctoral degree. Doctors of medicine have the abbreviation dr n. med. (doctor of medical studies) before or after their surname.
The title of dr inz. (doctor of engineering) is another specific doctoral titles. Dr n.hum. means doctor of humanities (incl. psychology and sociology), but is rarely used to differentiate from doctors of other fields. All other doctorates have no indications of their field.

Poland
In Portugal and in the African Countries of Portuguese Official Language it is common to use the title "Dr." (supposedly the abbreviation of "Doutor") in reference to people with "Licenciatura" degrees (a "Licenciatura" is something between a Bachelor and a Master Degree in most countries, and currently (Jan 2006) represents 4 or 5 years of graduate studies; except in the following Licenciaturas: Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medicine, Veterinary Medicine and Dental Medicine, which are six years long and the degree is equivalent to DPharm, DM/MD, etc. After the Bologna Process reform takes place in Portugal, it will have 3 to 4 years and be equivalent to any Bachelor degree in the E.U. countries that adopt this process). Some professionals have, however, different titles. For example: "Eng." (Engenheiro, Engineer), "Arq." (Arquitecto, Architect). The term Doctor" in Portugal is used for those with a PhD and, instead of the title "Dr.", use "Doutor" (the extended form) or "Professor Doutor" (because, usually, PhD's are university professors).

Doutor (Doctor) Portugal
The USSR and many post-Soviet countries, including Russian Federation, have two-stage research degree obtaining path, generally similar to the doctorate system in Europe. The first stage is named "Kandidat of <...> Sciences" (for instance, Kandidat of Medical Sciences, of Chemical Sciences, of Philological Sciences, and so on). The Kandidat of Sciences degree is usually recognised as equivalent of Philosophy Doctor (PhD) and require at least (and typically more than) three years of post-graduate research which finished by defence of a thesis. Additionally, a seeker of the degree has to pass three examinations (so-called "Kandidate's minimum"): in his/her special field, in one foreign language, and in philosophy. After an additional certification by the corresponding experts the Kandidat degree may be recognized internationally as an equivalent of Ph.D. (An unconditional Ph.D. equivalence has been recognized before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the additional certification in many countries has become required after the steep increase flow of post-Soviet emigration.)
The second stage, "Doctor of <...> Sciences", is equal to Professor Degree in Europe or North America. It requires many years of research experience and writing of a second dissertation. A position of Professor can be held only by a Doctor of Sciences.
The degrees of Kandidat and Doctor of Sciences are only awarded by the special governmental agency (Higher Attestation Commission); a university or a scientific institute where the thesis was defended can only recommend to award a seeker the sought degree.
Acceptance of Russian scientists holding the degree of Candidate into a research filed in North America created a confusing situation when Soviet Doctoral graduates are equalized in rights with their undersupervized.
Soviet scientists holding degree of Candidate take positions of Post doctoral fellows, Post doctoral research associates etc.

Russia
In Denmark there are five levels of degrees: Bachelor's, Candidate's (may be compared to Master), Magister (similar to an MPhil in the United Kingdom system; a degree by research, higher than a Master's but lower than a Ph.D.), Ph.D., and finally Dr., which is the higher doctorate.
These degrees (and in addition dr. ing.) were also used in Norway, which traditionally used the same system as Denmark. Besides dr. philos, which is awarded to people who don't follow an organized degree program, new candidates are no longer awarded these degrees, but are instead awarded a Ph.D. The new Ph.D. degree was introduced in the early 2000s.
The Ph.D. in Norway is not a lower-level research doctorate.

dr. med. - Medicine
dr. jur. - Law
dr. theol. - Theology
dr. phil. - Philosophy (humanities)
dr. polit. - Economics
dr. scient. - Science (natural sciences)
dr. techn. - Technology
dr. ling. merc. - Professional language Scandinavia

Slovakia and the Czech Republic
These degrees do not require completion of a thesis or dissertation and are awarded after completion of the required course of study.

Doctor of medicine (Medicinæ universæ doctor - MUDr.)
Doctor of dental medicine (Medicinæ dentalis doctor - MDDr., only in the Czech Republic)
Doctor of veterinary medicine (Medicinæ veterinariæ doctor - MVDr.) Professional doctorates
These degrees require the viva-voce defense of a written thesis/dissertation. They are written before the name, as "JUDr. Smith", or usually abbreviated "Dr. Smith".

Doctor of philosophy (Philosophiæ doctor - PhDr.)
Doctor of natural sciences (Rerum naturalium doctor - RNDr.)
Doctor of pharmacy (Pharmaciæ doctor - PharmDr.)
Doctor of laws (Juris utrisque doctor - JUDr.)
Doctor of paedeutics (Paedagogiæ doctor - PaedDr., no longer used in the Czech Republic)
Doctor of theology (Theologiæ doctor - ThDr.)
Doctor of economy (Rerum commercialum doctor - RCDr., no longer used)
Doctor of social sciences (Rerum societarum doctor - RSDr., deprecated - used by communist regime) First-degree doctorates
These degrees require the viva-voce defense of a written comprehensive thesis/dissertation. They are written after the name, that is, "Smith, PhD".

Candidate of sciences (Candidatus scientarum - CSc., since the 1990s replaced by common PhD.)
Doctor of philosophy (Philosophiae doctor - PhD., awarded since the 1990s; requires at least 3-year doctoral study) Research doctorates
Both Czech and Slovak orthography state that "philosophiae doctor" is abbreviated as "PhD." analogously to all of other degrees. However, perhaps under influence of international use of "Ph.D.", in the Czech law of scientific and academical degrees this foreign form is used. In fact, Czech lawgivers have enacted an orthographic mistake.

Doctor of sciences (Doctor scientarum - DrSc., in the Czech Republic DSc. if awarded after 2002; D(r)Sc. replaces its prerequisite PhD./CSc.)
Doctor of arts (Artes doctor - ArtD.)
Doctor of theology (Theologiae doctor - ThD.) Higher doctorates/Habilitation
Doctoral programs are available in all universities. According to the current study plan, the doctorate is a three-year long course.
During the first year, the student must obtain 20 lecture credits (200 hours aprox). During the second year, he/she is required to write and a "thesis project" and support it with a presentation. If the projects receives approval from the university, he/she will receive a "Diploma de Estudios Avanzados" (part qualified doctor). The student must write his/her thesis during the third and final school year. Once published, he/she will receive the doctorate.

Spain
All doctorates (except for those awarded honoris causa) granted by British universities are research doctorates in the sense described above, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of a thesis or portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university.
Even the relatively new 'vocational doctorates' such as the Eng.D., Ed.D. and D.Clin.Psych. require the submission of a body of original research of a similar length to a Ph.D. thesis. In the case of the Eng.D., for example, this might comprise one or more technical reports on research projects undertaken by the candidate.
The Ph.D. itself is a comparatively recent introduction to the UK, dating from 1917. It was originally introduced in order to provide a similar level of graduate research training as was available in several other countries, notably Germany and the USA. Previously, the only doctorates available were the higher doctorates, awarded in recognition of an illustrious research career.
The universities of Oxford and Sussex denote the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with the postnominal initials D.Phil. The University of York also did this for some years, switching to the more conventional Ph.D. quite recently.

United Kingdom
Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body original research undertaken over the course of many years. Typically the candidate will submit a collection of work which has been previously published in a peer-refereed context. Most universities restrict candidacy to graduates or academic staff of several years' standing. The most common examples of these degrees are as follows:
Of these, the D.D. historically ranked highest, theology being the senior faculty in the mediaeval universities. The degree of Doctor of Canon Law was next in the order of precedence, but did not survive the Protestant reformation. The D.Mus. was, historically, in an anomalous situation, since a candidate was not required to be a member of Convocation (that is, to be a Master of Arts). The D.Litt. and D.Sc. are relatively recent innovations, dating from the latter part of the 19th century.

Doctor of Divinity/Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.)
Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.)
Doctor of Laws/Legum Doctor (LL.D.)
Doctor of Medicine/Medicinæ Doctor (D.M., M.D.)
Doctor of Music/Musicæ Doctor (D.Mus., Mus.D.)
Doctor of Letters/Litterarum Doctor (D.Litt., Litt.D.)
Doctor of Science/Scientiæ Doctor (D.Sc., Sc.D.)
Doctor of Engineering (D.Eng.)
Doctor of Literature (D.Lit.) (London's eqivalent to the D.Litt.)
Doctor of Technology (D.Tech.)
Doctor of Governance (D.Gov.) Higher doctorates
Most British universities award degrees honoris causa in order to recognise individuals who have made a substantial contribution to a particular field. Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances, depending on the achievements of the candidate. However, some universities, in order to differentiate between honorary and substantive doctorates, have introduced the degree of Doctor of the University (D.Univ.) for these purposes, and reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research.

Honorary doctorates

United States
The most common type of research doctorate is a Ph.D. (Philosophiæ Doctor or Doctor of Philosophy), though there are many other types of research doctorates. Other research doctorates are sometimes regarded as less prestigious than the Ph.D.
The Doctor of Science degree (Sc.D. or D.Sc.) awarded by American universities is nearly always equivalent to the Ph.D. The Sc.D., which was first conferred in North America by Harvard University in 1872, is rarer than the Ph.D. (by comparison, the Ph.D. degree was first conferred in North America by Yale University in 1861, which established the first arts & sciences graduate school in North America in the 1840s.) However, the Sc.D. degree has long been awarded by leading institutions such as Harvard University, Johns Hopkins University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, etc. At many of these universities, the academic requirements for the Ph.D. and Sc.D. are identical.

Doctor of Applied Science (D.A.S.)
Doctor of Architecture (D.Arch.)
Doctor of Arts (D.A.)
Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.)
Doctor of Canon Law (J.C.D.)
Doctor of Chemistry (D.Chem.)
Doctor of Comparative Law (D.C.L.)
Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.)
Doctor of Computer Science (D.C.S.)
Doctor of Criminal Justice (D.C.J.)
Doctor of Criminology (D.Crim.)
Doctor of Design (Dr.DES.)
Doctor of Education (Ed.D.)
Doctor of Engineering (D.Eng.)
Doctor of Engineering Science (D.E.Sc., Sc.D E.)
Doctor of Environmental Science and Engineering (D.Env.)
Doctor of Fine Arts (D.F.A.)
Doctor of Forestry (D.F.)
Doctor of Geological Science (D.G.S.)
Doctor of Health and Safety (D.H.S.)
Doctor of Hebrew Literature/Letters (D.H.L.)
Doctor of Hebrew Studies (D.H.S.)
Doctor of Humane Letters (D.Hum.Litt.)
Doctor of Industrial Technology (D.I.T.)
Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D., J.S.D.)
Doctor of Library Science (D.L.S.)
Doctor of Literature and Philosophy (D.Litt. et Phil.)
Doctor of Medical Science (D.M.Sc.)
Doctor of Ministry (D.Min., D.M.)
Doctor of Modern Languages (D.M.L.)
Doctor of Music (D.Mus, Mus.Doc.)
Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A., A.Mus.D.)
Doctor of Musical Education (D.M.E.)
Doctor of Nursing Science (D.N.Sc.)
Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D)
Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D)
Doctor of Physical Education (D.P.E.)
Doctor of Professional Studies (D.P.S.)
Doctor of Public Administration (D.P.A.)
Doctor of Public Health (D.P.H.)
Doctor of Recreation (D.Rec./D.R.)
Doctor of Rehabilitation (Rh.D.)
Doctor of Religious Education (D.R.E.)
Doctor of Science (D.Sc., Sc. D.)
Doctor of Science in Dentistry (D.Sc.D.)
Doctor of Science and Hygiene (D.Sc.H.)
Doctor of Science in Veterinary Medicine (D.Sc.V.M.)
Doctor of the Science of Law (L.Sc.D.)
Doctor of Social Science (D.S.Sc.)
Doctor of Social Work (D.S.W.)
Doctor of Sacred Music (D.S.M.)
Doctor of Sacred Theology (S.T.D.)
Doctor of Theology (Th.D.)
Doctor of the Science of Law (L.Sc.D.) Research doctorate
In the United States, the first professional degrees in many clinical fields have the name "doctor" and are also known as "professional doctorates." Such fields include audiology, chiropractic, dentistry, medicine, occupational therapy, optometry, osteopathy, pharmacy, physical therapy, podiatry, psychology, veterinary medicine, and many others.
It is important to recognize that practitioners in these fields hold first-professional degrees, not graduate research degrees, and the level of research training is not academically equivalent to a Ph.D.[1] For example, professional doctoral education (such as medicine and law) does not generally require completion of a thesis/dissertation to graduate, a central component of Doctoral and most Master's level research degrees. There are some exceptions though, as some law schools and a small number of medical schools require that the candidate perform original research and write a formal research paper. Even when not a requirement, most medical students still conduct some form of academic research before residency, often leading to publication. The typical minimum term for such a degree (M.D.) is 4 years past postsecondary education. In addition, many academic fields allow individuals to pursue teaching and research careers within their field with a professional doctorate.
Not all fields have chosen to name (or rename as was the case in the field of law) their first professional degrees "doctorates". For example in accountancy it is the Master of Accountancy. Despite being named "masters" some masters degree programs may require about the same amount of time to complete as "professional doctorate" programs in other fields so the naming is somewhat arbitrary. For example, despite being a "masters" level degree, the first professional degree in architecture may require 3 to 3.5 years to complete. There is currently some debate in the architectural community to rename the degree to a "doctorate" in the manner that was done for the law degree decades ago.[2]
Titling of first professional degrees in the above-named fields as a "doctorate" is argued by some to be a uniquely American convention that is not utilized in most other countries. In many other countries, the "equivalent" degree is often a bachelor's or master's degree (for example, Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery, Bachelor of Law). U.S. law schools used to name their law degree the LL.B. (Bachelor of Laws) before renaming the degree to J.D. (Doctor of Jurisprudence). However, it should be noted that training for the M.D./D.O. is considerably longer in the U.S., which has a separate 4-year post-graduate school, thus a total of 8 years required, than in countries such as England where professional training is combined with the undergraduate education, to have a duration of 6 years total.

Professional doctorates (also called First Professional Degrees)
Other professional doctorates which are not 'first professional' as described above include post-Masters doctorates like the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), the Doctor of Health Science (D.H.Sc.), the Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.) and the Professional Doctorate (Prof.Doc.) or Doctor of Professional Studies (D.P.S. or D.Prof.). These generally require a Masters degree (such as a Master of Education or a Master of Business Administration) and perhaps some professional post-bachelors experience (5 to 10 years or more in some cases) in a relevant field as an entry condition. These are also known as "practitioner's doctorates" due to their applied focus and target group of advanced practitioners of various professions.
A post-Masters dissertation of a comparable or slightly shorter length than that required for a PhD is usually a requirement for graduation. Additionally, post-Masters taught courses are a common feature. PhD programmes offered in countries like the UK, Australia and most commonwealth countries are typically solely based on the successful completion of an academically-focused dissertation. The distinction from practitioner's doctorates is that the latter allow candidates to learn more advanced topics through taught courses.
The focus of a practitioner doctorate's dissertation is usually application, rather than creation, of theories. This focus appeals to non-academicians such as educators, teachers, business executives, leaders, civil servants and other practitioners who are more interested in the successful application of advanced theories in their respective professions rather than academic research into their field.
Generally, practitioner's doctorates as such are considered to be equivalent in academic standing to the PhD, though the latter is usually preferred for academic positions.

In publishing and graphic design, lorem ipsum is standard placeholder text used to demonstrate the graphic elements of a document or visual presentation, such as font, typography, and layout. Lorem ipsum also serves as placeholder text in mock-ups of visual design projects before the actual words are inserted into the finished product. When used in this manner, it is often called greeking.
Even though using "lorem ipsum" often arouses curiosity due to its resemblance to classical Latin, it is not intended to have meaning. Where text is visible in a document, people tend to focus on the textual content rather than upon overall presentation, so publishers use lorem ipsum when displaying a typeface or design in order to direct the focus to presentation. "Lorem ipsum" also approximates a typical distribution of letters in English, which helps to shift the focus to presentation.
The most common lorem ipsum text reads as follows:
Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat. Duis aute irure dolor in reprehenderit in voluptate velit esse cillum dolore eu fugiat nulla pariatur. Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum.

Variations

List of Latin phrases
Li Europan lingues
Etaoin shrdlu
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog