Hero City (Russian: город-герой, gorod-geroy) is an honorary title awarded for outstanding heroism during the Great Patriotic War (World War II) of 1941 to 1945. It was awarded to twelve cities of the Soviet Union. In addition the Brest Fortress was awarded an equivalent title of Hero-Fortress. This symbolic distinction for a city corresponds to the individual distinction Hero of the Soviet Union.
According to the statute, the hero city is issued the Order of Lenin, the Gold Star medal, and the certificate of the heroic deed (gramota) from the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. Also, the corresponding obelisk is installed in the city.

History
The fortress in Brest (Belarus) was located right on the recently established border between the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany. This border was drawn in the secret appendix to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and quickly established de-facto after the two countries invaded and divided Poland between them in September 1939, only weeks after their conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. As such, the fortress had little warning when the Axis invaded on 22 June 1941, and became the site of the first major fighting between Soviet frontier guards and the invading German forces of Army Group Centre. German artillery heavily shelled the fortress; the subsequent attempt to quickly take it with infantry failed, however, and the Germans started a lengthy siege. The Brest garrison, about 4,000 soldiers in the fortress itself, offered bitter resistance to the German assaults. Although they were initially surprised by the attack and outnumbered by a ratio of 10:1, and although they were cut off from the outside world and ran out of food, water and ammunition, the defenders fought and counter-attacked until the very last minute. The Germans deployed tanks, tear gas and flame throwers but could not break Soviet resistance. After the Germans had taken most of the ruined fortifications, taking heavy casualties, bloody fighting continued underground. The fighting ended only in late July. The actual front had by then already moved hundreds of kilometres further East. The fortress of Brest was awarded the title Hero-Fortress in 1965. Even after the fortress was officially taken, the few surviving defenders continued to hide in the basements and to harass the Germans for several months.

Brest Hero-Fortress
The city of Leningrad, now known as Saint Petersburg, saw what is regarded as one of the greatest human tragedies of the entire War. Leningrad, one of the cities with a large amount of classical and baroque architecture on the Baltic Sea, was a city with a pre-war population of three million inhabitants. By August 1941, the Germans had reached the city's southern outskirts. Finnish forces had meanwhile recaptured the Karelian Isthmus North-West of the city, which they had lost after the Winter War in 1940.
The city was completely cut off from all land access on 8 September 1941. As the Gulf of Finland was blocked as well, Leningrad's only contact with the outer world was a vulnerable waterway across Lake Ladoga, as Finnish command didn't agree to German requests to advance beyond the River Svir and to conquer the rest of the Lake's coastline. Since taking the city seemed too costly to the Germans, in the light of bitter Soviet resistance, they instead began the Siege of Leningrad in order to starve the city to death. Soon, electricity, water and heating for civilian housing had to be shut down. All public transportation stopped in 1941-42 winter , but in 1942 city tramcars were relaunched (trolleys and buses were inoperable until end of the war).
Thousands of Leningrad citizens froze or starved to death in the first winter of the siege alone, dying at home in their beds or collapsing from exhaustion in the streets. Meanwhile, German artillery continued to bombard the city. Although the siege lasted for 900 days, the city did not surrender. During this siege, the starving population was driven to extreme measures to survive and some resorted to cannibalism 300,000 soldiers had perished in the defence and relief of Leningrad. Leningrad was awarded the title Hero City in 1945, being the first city to receive that distinction.

Stalingrad (Volgograd)
In early August 1941, the Black Sea port of Odessa, located in present-day Ukraine, was attacked and besieged by Romanian forces fighting alongside their German allies. The fierce battle in defence of the city lasted until 16 October, when the remaining Soviet troops, as well as 15,000 civilians were evacuated by sea. Partisan fighting continued, however, in the city's catacombs. Odessa was awarded the title Hero City in 1945.

Odessa
The Black Sea port of Sevastopol was a heavily defended fortress on the Crimean peninsula. German and Romanian troops had advanced to the outskirts of the city from the North and launched their attack on 30 October 1941. Having failed to take the city, Axis forces began a siege and heavy bombardment. A second Axis offensive against the city, launched in December 1941, failed as well, as the Soviet army and navy forces continued to fight fiercely. Eventually the city was taken in June 1942. It was liberated in bloody fighting in May 1944. Sevastopol was awarded the title Hero City in 1945.

Sevastopol
At the gates of the Soviet capital, the German invaders finally suffered their most decisive defeat of 1941. The advance of the German Army Group Centre came to a halt in late November 1941, in the outskirts of Moscow itself. The Soviet Government had by then been evacuated, yet Stalin remained in the city. Struggling between determination and despair, the city's population helped build defensive positions in the streets. The underground metro stations provided shelter during German air raids. General Georgy Zhukov, who assumed command of the city's defence, largely left close combat tactics to the local commanders on the city's approaches, and focused on concentrating fresh troops from Siberia for an eventual counter-attack. The Soviet counter-offensive was launched on 5 and 6 December 1941. In the freezing cold of an unusually harsh winter, Soviet forces, including well-equipped ski battalions, drove the exhausted Germans back out of reach of Moscow and consolidated their positions on 7 January 1942. The victory in the Battle of Moscow provided an important boost in morale for the Soviet population. Moscow was awarded the title Hero City in 1965.

Moscow
The capital of present-day Ukraine became the site of the largest encirclement battle in the summer of 1941. When the Germans commenced their offensive on 7 July, Soviet forces concentrated in the Kiev area were ordered to stand fast, and a breakout was prohibited. Defence of the pocket was fierce. Thousands of civilians volunteered to help defend the city. Eventually Kiev was taken on 19 September. Over 600,000 Soviet troops were taken captive when the pocket was cleared. The prolonged resistance effectively disrupted the German plans of blitzkrieg. However, in military terms, the battle was an awesome victory for the German Army and a disaster for the Soviets. It had a huge effect on morale, and Adolf Hitler praised the victory as the greatest battle in history.
During the German occupation of Kiev, hundreds of thousands of civilians were killed or deported for slave labour. Kiev again became a battlefield when advancing Soviet forces pushed the Germans back West, liberating the city on 6 November 1943. Kiev was awarded the title Hero City in 1965.

Kiev
The city of Novorossiysk on the Eastern coast of the Black Sea provided a stronghold against the German summer offensive of 1942. Intense fighting in and around the city lasted from August until September 1942. The Soviets however retained possession of the Eastern part of the bay, which prevented the Germans from using the port for supply shipments. Novorossiysk was awarded the title Hero City in 1973.

Novorossiysk
Kerch, a port in the East of the Crimean peninsula, formed a bridgehead at the strait dividing Crimea from the Southern Russian mainland. After fierce fighting, it was taken by the Germans in November 1941. On 30 December 1941 the Soviets recaptured the city in a naval landing operation. In May 1942 the Germans occupied the city again, yet Soviet partisan forces held out in the cliffs near the city until October 1942. On 31 October 1943 another Soviet naval landing was launched. The largely ruined city was finally liberated on 11 April 1944. Kerch was awarded the title Hero City in 1973.

Kerch
The city of Minsk, capital of present-day Belarus, was encircled by advancing German forces in late June 1941. Trapped in a vast pocket, the Soviets defended their positions desperately. Their resistance was broken on 9 July, with over 300,000 Soviet troops taken captive. During the following three-year occupation, the Germans killed about 400,000 civilians in and around the city. The Minsk area became a centre for the Soviet partisan movement behind enemy lines. Minsk was awarded the title Hero City in 1974.

Tula
The city of Murmansk, located on the Kola Peninsula close to the Norwegian and Finnish borders, was a strategically important sea port and industrial city. It was the only Soviet port on the Northern coast that did not freeze in the winter, and was vital for the transport of supplies to the South. German forces, including 800 Finns under German command, launched an offensive against Murmansk on 29 June 1941. More than 180,000 grenades and inflammable shells were fired on the city itself. Fierce Soviet resistance in the tundra and several Soviet counter-attacks made an Axis breakthrough impossible, however. Axis forces discontinued their attacks in late October 1941, having failed to take Murmansk or to cut off the Karelian railway line. Murmansk was awarded the title Hero City in 1985.

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The Lahore Resolution (Qarardad-e-Lahore قرارداد لاھور), commonly known as the Pakistan Resolution (قرارداد پاکستان Qarardad-e-Pakistan),
Khakrsar Movement
History of Pakistan
Pakistan Movement
Wikimedia Atlas of Pakistan, holding maps related to Pakistan.
The Pakistan Resolution, Government of Pakistan Official website. (Retrieved on 23 April 2006)
Lahore Resolution (1940) at Story of Pakistan website. (Retrieved on 23 April 2006)
Lahore Resolution at Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.(Retrieved on 23 April 2006)
Pakistan Resolution or Muslim League's Search For Survival

The State of Alabama (IPA: /ˌɒ.ləˈbɒ.mə/), is located in the southern region of the United States of America. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks second in the size of its inland waterways. The state ranks 23rd in population with almost 4.5 million residents in 2000.
Until World War II, Alabama, like many Southern states, suffered economic hardship. In the years following the war, Alabama experienced significant recovery as the economy of the state transitioned from agriculture to diversified interests in heavy manufacturing, mineral extraction, education, and high technology. Today, the state is heavily invested in the aerospace, education, health care, banking, and various heavy industries including automobile manufacturing, mineral extraction, steel production and fabrication.
Alabama is officially nicknamed the Yellowhammer state, which is also the name of the state bird. Alabama is also known as the "Heart of Dixie." The capital of Alabama is Montgomery, and the largest city is Birmingham (in Jefferson County).

Etymology of state name

Main article: Geography of Alabama Geography

Main article: List of Metropolitan areas of Alabama Urban areas
The climate of Alabama is described as temperate with an average annual temperature of 64°F (18°C). Temperatures tend to be warmer in the southern part of the state with its close proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, while the northern parts of the state, especially in the Appalachian Mountains in the northeast, tend to be slightly cooler. Sometimes Tornadoes occur - these are common throughout the state, although the peak season for tornadoes varies from the northern to southern parts of the state. Alabama shares the dubious distinction, with Kansas, of having reported more F5 tornadoes than any other state - according to statistics from the National Climatic Data Center for the period 1 January 1950 to 31 October 2006. An F5 tornado is the most powerful of its kind. Several long - tracked F5 tornadoes have contributed to Alabama reporting more tornado fatalities than any other state except for Texas and Mississippi. The Super Outbreak of March, 1974, badly affected Alabama. The north of the state - along the Tennessee Valley - is one of the area's in the US most vulnerable to violent tornadoes. The area of Alabama and Mississippi most affected by tornadoes is sometimes referred to as Dixie Alley, as distinct from the Tornado Alley of the Southern Plains. Alabama is one of the few places in the world that has a secondary tornado season (November and December) in addition to the Spring severe weather season.
Winters are generally mild in Alabama, as they are throughout most of the southeastern United States, with average January low temperatures around 40 °F in Mobile and around 32°F in Birmingham. Snow is a rare event in much of Alabama. Areas of the state north of Montgomery may receive a dusting of snow a few times every winter, with an occasional moderately heavy snowfall every few years. In the southern Gulf coast, snowfall is less frequent, sometimes going several years without any snowfall.

Climate

Main article: History of Alabama History

Main article: Demographics of Alabama Demographics
The racial makeup of the state and comparison to the prior census:
The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama: American (17.0%), English (7.8%), Irish (7.7%), German (5.7%), and Scots-Irish (2.0%). 'American' does not includes those reported as Native American.

Religion
According to the United States Bureau of Economic Analysis, the 2005 total gross state product was $151 billion. This is an increase of 4.5% over 2004 and ranks Alabama number 15 in terms of state level GDP growth. The single largest increase came in the area of durable goods manufacturing.
Alabama as recently as 2003 had an annual budget deficit as high as $670 million, yet is one of only a few handful of states to turn around into large surpluses with its current state's budget surplus at nearly $1.2 Billion for fiscal year 2007, and estimated over $2.1 Billion for fiscal year 2008.

Economy
Alabama has five major interstate roads that cross it: I-65 runs north-south roughly through the middle of the state; I-59/I-20 travels from the central west border to Birmingham, where I-59 continues to the north-east corner of the state and I-20 continues east towards Atlanta; I-85 goes from the border of Georgia and ends in Montgomery, providing a main thoroughfare to Atlanta; and I-10 traverses the southernmost portion of the state, running from west to east through Mobile. Another interstate road, I-22, is currently under construction. When completed (est. 2012), it will connect Birmingham with Memphis, Tennessee.
Major airports in Alabama include Birmingham International Airport (BHM), Dothan Regional Airport (DHN), Huntsville International Airport (HSV), Mobile Regional Airport (MOB), Montgomery Regional Airport (IATA: MGM, ICAO: KMGM), Muscle Shoals - Northwest Alabama Regional Airport (MSL), and Tuscaloosa Regional Airport (TCL).

Transportation
Listed from north to south

Water ports

Main article: Government of Alabama Law and government
The foundational document for Alabama's government is the Alabama Constitution, which was ratified in 1901. At more than 770 amendments and 310,000 words, it is the world's longest constitution and is roughly forty times the length of the U.S. Constitution.
Alabama is divided into three equal branches:
The legislative branch is the Alabama Legislature, a bicameral assembly composed of the Alabama House of Representatives, with 105 members, and the Alabama Senate, with 35 members. The Legislature is responsible for writing, debating, passing, or defeating state legislation.
The executive branch is responsible for the execution and oversight of laws. It is headed by the Governor of Alabama. Other members of executive branch include the cabinet, the Attorney General of Alabama, the Alabama Secretary of State, the Alabama Commissioner of Agriculture and Industries, the Alabama State Treasurer, and the Alabama State Auditor.
The judicial branch is responsible for interpreting the Constitution and applying the law in state criminal and civil cases. The highest court is the Supreme Court of Alabama.

State government
Alabama has 67 counties. Each county has its own elected legislative branch, usually called the Board of Commissioners, which usually also has executive authority in the county. Due to the restraints placed in the Alabama Constitution, all but 7 counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have little to no home rule. Instead, most counties in the state must lobby the Local Legislation Committee of the state legislature to get simple local policies such as waste disposal to land use zoning.
Alabama is an alcoholic beverage control state; the government holds a monopoly on the sale of alcohol.

List of Alabama county seats Local and county government
The current governor of the state is Bob Riley. The lieutenant governor is Jim Folsom Jr. The Democratic Party currently holds a large majority in both houses of the Legislature. Due to the Legislature's power to override a gubernatorial veto by a mere simple majority (most state Legislatures require a 2/3 majority to override a veto), the relationship between the executive and legislative branches can be easily strained when different parties control both branches.
During Reconstruction following the American Civil War, Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the Third Military District under General John Pope. In 1874, the political coalition known as the Redeemers took control of the state government from the Republicans. After 1890, a coalition of whites passed laws to segregate and disenfranchise black residents. The state became part of the "Solid South," a one-party system in which the Democratic Party became essentially the only political party in every Southern state. For nearly 100 years, local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party primary, with generally no Republican challenger running in the General Election. It was not until the 1980s that Republicans began to successfully challenge and win elections in local and state offices.
Alabama state politics gained nationwide and international attention in the 1950s and 1960s during the American Civil Rights Movement, when it bureaucratically, and at times, violently resisted protests for electoral and social reform. The state's governor during the period, George Wallace, remains a notorious and controversial figure. However, in 2007, the Alabama legislature passed, and the Governor signed, a resolution expressing "profound regret" over slavery and its lingering impact. The bill was signed in the Alabama state house which served as the first Capital of the Confederate States of America.

State politics
From 1876 through 1956, Alabama supported only Democratic presidential candidates, by large margins. 1960 was a curious election; the Democrats won with John F. Kennedy on the ballot, but the Democratic electors gave 6 of their 11 electoral votes as a protest to Harry Byrd. In 1964, Republican Barry Goldwater carried the state. In the 1968 presidential election, Alabama supported native son and American Independent Party candidate George Wallace over both Richard Nixon and Hubert Humphrey. In 1976, Democratic candidate Jimmy Carter carried the state, the region, and the nation, but Democratic control of the region slipped thereafter. Since 1980, the Republican party has become increasingly dominant in Alabama's federal elections. In local politics, by contrast, Democrats still control many offices, such as their large and long standing majority in the Alabama Legislature.
In 2004, George W. Bush won Alabama's nine electoral votes by a margin of 25 percentage points with 62.5% of the vote. The only 11 counties voting Democratic were Black Belt counties, where African Americans are in the majority.
The state's two current U.S. senators are Jefferson B. Sessions III and Richard C. Shelby, both from the Republican Party.
In the U.S. House of Representatives, the state is represented by seven members, five of whom are Republicans (Jo Bonner, Terry Everett, Mike D. Rogers, Robert Aderholt, and Spencer Bachus) and two Democrats (Bud Cramer and Artur Davis).
Further information: U.S. presidential election, 2004, in Alabama

Federal politics

Education

Main article: List of colleges and universities in Alabama Colleges and universities

Sports teams

The phrase The Heart of Dixie (originating from Alabama being the capital of the Confederate States during the Civil War). is required by state law to be included on standard state vehicle license plates, but has recently been reduced to a very small size and eclipsed by the phrase Stars Fell on Alabama. As of October 2006, Alabama also provides an alternative "God Bless America" license plate at no additional charge.
The song Sweet Home Alabama, originally performed by the rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd, was an answer to Neil Young's songs Southern Man and Alabama, both of which criticized white Southerners' attitudes and actions during the Civil Rights Movement. While this is often considered that band's signature song, Lynyrd Skynyrd actually hailed from Jacksonville, Florida, several hundred miles away, at the time of the recording in 1974.
The world's first Electric Trolley System was introduced in Montgomery in 1886.
911 and its use as the standard emergency number was invented and first used in Alabama. Miscellaneous topics

Alabama census statistical areas
Alabama Highway Patrol
Appalachia
Coat of arms of Alabama
Famous Alabamians
List of symphonies of Alabama
Music of Alabama
Scouting in Alabama
The Alabama Theatre See also

Alabama Shakespeare Festival
Birmingham Astronomical Society
Birmingham Museum of Art
USS Alabama
U.S. Space & Rocket Center/U.S. Space Camp Huntsville
Old State Bank
Rhea-McEntire House
Vulcan Park
Birmingham Civil Rights Institute
Alabama Symphony Orchestra Cultural sites

Alabama Jubilee Hot Air Balloon Classic
Alabama Sports Festival
Bayfest, Mobile's Music Festival
Big Spring Jam
City Stages Music Festival, Birmingham
GMAC Bowl
Jubilee City Fest
Mardi Gras, Mobile
Mobile Bay Jubilee
Papajohns.com Bowl (formerly the Birmingham Bowl)
Regions Charity Classic (formerly the Bruno's Memorial Classic)
Senior Bowl
Sidewalk Moving Picture Festival
Spirit of America Festival Venues

Wednesday, November 14, 2007

George Pake (April 1, 1924 – March 4, 2004) was a physicist and research executive primarily known for helping found Xerox PARC. Pake earned his bachelors and masters degrees from the Carnegie Institute of Technology and his doctorate in physics at Harvard University in 1948.
After four years as a physics professor at Washington University in St. Louis, Pake became the head of the physics department at age 28. He later went on to become provost of the university from 1962 to 1970 before leaving to serve as founding director of Xerox PARC.
PARC assembled a first-rate collection of research talent, especially in the area of computer science. During Dr. Pake's years running Xerox PARC, the research center invented the laser printer and pioneered the use of a computer "desktop" which functioned by clicking on "icons." This has since become the computer industry standard.
If the Xerox Corporation never chose to open a computer division, it was through no lack of advocacy by George Pake.
Pake was a recipient of the National Medal of Science in 1987 and continued to visit PARC long after his 1986 retirement from Xerox.
George Pake died of multiple systems failure on March 4, 2004 in Tucson, Arizona.

Tuesday, November 13, 2007

The Canadian federal election of 1979 was held on May 22, 1979 to elect members of the Canadian House of Commons of the 31st Parliament of Canada. It resulted in the defeat of Liberal Party of Canada after 11 years in power under Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. Joe Clark led the Progressive Conservative Party to power, but with only a minority of seats in the House of Commons.
The Trudeau Liberals had become very unpopular during their last term in government because of large budget deficits, high inflation, and high unemployment. Although elections in Canada are normally held four years apart, Trudeau deferred calling an election until five years after the previous election in the hope that the Liberal Party would be able to recover some of the support that it had lost.
The effort was unsuccessful, however, and the Liberals lost 27 seats. Several high-profile cabinet ministers were defeated. Trudeau resigned as Liberal leader following the election.
The PC Party campaigned on the slogans, "Let's get Canada working again", and "It's time for a change - give the future a chance!" Canadians were not, however, sufficiently confident in the young Joe Clark to give him a majority in the House of Commons. Quebec, in particular, was unwilling to support Clark, and elected only two PC Members of Parliament (MPs) in the province's 75 ridings. Clark, relatively unknown when elected as PC leader at the 1976 PC Party convention, was seen as being bumbling and unsure. Clark had had problems with certain right-wing members of his caucus. In particular, when Clark's riding was merged into the riding of another PC MP during a redistribution of ridings, the other MP refused to step aside, and Clark ended up running in another riding. Also, when Clark undertook a tour of the Middle East Asia in order to show his ability to handle foreign affairs issues, his luggage was lost, and Clark appeared to be uncomfortable with the issues being discussed.
The Liberals tried to make leadership and Clark's inexperience the issue, arguing in their advertising that "This is no time for on-the-job training", and "We need tough leadership to keep Canada growing. A leader must be a leader."
The Social Credit Party of Canada, which had lost its mercurial leader, Réal Caouette, who died in 1976, struggled to remain relevant. After a series of interim leaders, including Caouette's son, the party turned to Fabien Roy, a popular member of the National Assembly of Quebec, who took the reins of the party just before the beginning of the campaign. The party won the tacit support of the separatist Parti Québécois, which formed the government of Quebec. Social Credit attempted to rally the separatist and nationalist vote: Canadian flags were absent at its campaign kick-off rally, and the party's slogan was C'est à notre tour ("It's our turn"), which was reminiscent of the popular separatist anthem Gens du pays that includes the chorus, "C'est à votre tour de vous laisser parler d'amour". The party focused its platform on constitutional change, promising to fight to abolish the federal government's never-used right to disallow any provincial legislation, and stating that each province has a "right to choose its own destiny within Canada".
The Socreds' support from the Parti Québécois was not welcome by everyone; for instance, Gilles Caouette publicly denounced what he called "péquistes déguisés en créditistes" ("Péquistes disguised as Socreds"). While the party did manage to somewhat increase its vote in Péquiste areas, it also lost many votes in areas of traditional Socred strength, with the end result being a drop from eleven to six seats and a slightly reduced share of the popular vote compared to the 1974 election. (See also: Social Credit Party candidates, 1979 Canadian federal election.)
Clark's minority government lasted less than nine months. It was defeated in the House of Commons in a vote of non-confidence over a budget bill that proposed to increase the excise tax on gasoline by 18 cents per Imperial gallon (about 4 cents per litre). This resulted in the 1980 election, in which the PCs were defeated by the resurgent Trudeau Liberals.

National results
xx - less than 0.05% of the popular vote.

Monday, November 12, 2007

Major broadcasters
Before the advent of digital television in the UK, five main television channels dominated British television. With the increasing popularity of digital television, all are expanding and offering a portfolio of digital-only channels to viewers.
The BBC is the world's oldest and biggest broadcaster, and is the country's first and largest public service broadcaster. The BBC is funded by a television licence fee that all households with a television must pay. Its analogue channels are BBC One and BBC Two. The BBC first began a television service, initially serving London only, in 1936. BBC Television was closed during World War II but reopened in 1946. The second station, BBC Two, was launched in 1964. As well as these two analogue services, the British Broadcasting Corporation now also offers digital services BBC Three, BBC Four, BBC News 24, BBC Parliament, CBBC Channel, CBeebies, BBCi and has trialled BBC HD.
ITV (Independent Television) was the name given to the original commercial British television broadcasters, set up on a regional basis in 1955 to provide competition to the BBC. Almost all of these companies have now merged into a single business. Unlike the BBC, ITV funds itself by showing television commercials. Despite the proliferation of channels, ITV is still the UK's biggest commercial broadcaster in the country. Its flagship analogue channel is ITV1, though it also now runs digital-only television channels ITV2, ITV3, ITV4, ITV Play, CITV and Men & Motors.
These channels were launched in 1982, and although state owned, Channel 4 is funded by its commercial activities (including advertising). The situation is more complex with S4C, as the BBC produces some programming, and the channel also has Welsh language obligations. Channel 4 has expanded into digital television, now offering E4, More 4 and Film4 on all digital platforms. S4C has also expanded, offering S4C2 in Wales. S4C has announced that once the Wales digital switch over is completed it will become a Welsh language only channel and not broadcast anything in English. This is due to the fact that Channel 4 will be available to the whole of Wales for the first time and not only to those households lucky enough to live within the range of an English transmitter.
Five (previously known as Channel 5) was the final analogue broadcaster to be launched, in 1997. Its coverage is less than that of the other analogue broadcasters. RTL Group, Europe's largest television broadcaster, took full control of the channel in August 2005. Five launched two new channels, Five US and Five Life in October 2006.
All of these channels are also carried on satellite television, cable television and digital terrestrial television services.

Free-to-air analogue terrestrial networks
British television differs from other countries, such as the United States, such that programmes produced in Britain do not generally have a long 'season' run of around 20 weeks. Instead, programmes are produced in a series, a set of episodes varying in length, usually aired over a period of a few months.
Weekday programming on terrestrial channels begin with national news programmes (along with regional news updates) on BBC One and ITV 1, with children's programming on BBC Two and Five. Channel 4, on the other hand, has a variety of morning programmes, appealing to a wide audience, including horse racing and T4, Channel 4's teen to young adult orientated channel. The morning news finishes at 09:00 for BBC One and 9:25 for ITV 1. Following this, lifestyle programming is shown. Typically, this occurs on all channels by 11:00, continuing until 16:00. Also included is a lunch time news update on BBC One and ITV 1. Following this, further children's programming is shown on BBC One, and all channels will eventually switch to entertainment programming, including soaps and game shows. Between 18:00 and 20:00, BBC One, ITV 1, Channel 4 and five all shown early evening news, with BBC One and ITV 1 following this up with late evening news after 20:00.
Prime time programming is usually dominated by further soaps - including Eastenders on BBC One and Coronation Street and Emmerdale on ITV 1 - and entertainment programming. These entertainment programmes can vary throughout the year, however weekly dramas such as Holby City, are also fixed to scheduling. Because of this, the UK can often rely more heavily on TV guides, be it with the newspaper, online on as available on information services on the television: Ceefax/Teletext/BBCi as well as built in Electrionic Programme Guides.
Weekend programming traditionally contains further children's, lifestyle programming, as well as sporting events and the occasional afternoon film. There are further battles for viewers in the weekend prime time slot, often featuring reality or talent game shows in the evening. Morning and late evening news programmes still continue on BBC One and ITV 1, yet even these can be shifted about due to delays in sporting events.
After midnight, when late evening films are shown, channels 'close down'. Before 2000, the channels simply shut, displaying news in the form of Ceefax or a test card. However, recently programming has been shown continually. BBC channels will join BBC News 24 in a multichannel simulcast. ITV 1 switches to ITV Play, a phone-in competition service. Channel 4 will show wills and, depending on the time of year, they may show live feeds of Big Brother (in the Summer) and its spin-off Celebrity Big Brother (in January). Five may show sport, from around the world, including Boxing and football from European leagues.

Programming
BSkyB (British Sky Broadcasting) operates a satellite television service and numerous television channels e.g. Sky One, Sky Two, Sky Three, Sky Movies, Sky Sports. It is owned by News Corporation.
Owned by the cable provider Virgin Media and operates several channels, e.g., Living, Bravo, Trouble. It also owns 50% of the UKTV company (The other 50% is owned by the BBC).
These six broadcasters dominate British television. The terrestrial networks all operate numerous digital channels and the bulk of viewing is on channels provided by these broadcasters. The most watched digital channels are owned by these networks also. There are other broadcasters who have secured a notable place on British television including Discovery Channel, Viacom International and EMAP, which all provide multiple channels.
No further analogue broadcasters are expected to be launched, and efforts are being made to popularise the uptake of digital television so that analogue television broadcasts can be discontinued and the bandwidth allocated can be reused. The analogue service is to be switched off over a 5 year plan starting in 2008 and finishing in 2012. 2008 will see ITV Border, ITV Westcountry and ITV Wales analogue service switched off. 2009: ITV Granada, ITV West, and STV. 2010: ITV Central, ITV Yorkshire and ITV Anglia, 2011: ITV Meridian, ITV London, ITV Tyne Tees and UTV, and finally 2012: ITV Channel Television.
With the passage of UK's Communications Act 2003, there are no longer any foreign-ownership restrictions in the UK's television programming services, cable and Direct-to-Home satellite television sectors. To counterbalance the removal of foreign-ownership restrictions for companies in the broadcasting sector, the UK government has increased the power of the regulatory body, which is called Ofcom.

Digital Networks

Main article: Digital terrestrial television in the United Kingdom Cable and satellite

List of British television channels
List of UK television series
Ofcom
BACC
BARB
Digital switchover in the United Kingdom

Sunday, November 11, 2007

NHS Shetland is one of the fourteen Scottish regions of the National Health Service. It provides healthcare services in the Shetland area. NHS Shetland is headquartered in Brevik House, Lerwick.
NHS Shetland operates two hospitals:

Gilbert Bain Hospital, Lerwick
Montfield Hospital, Lerwick

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